The Valiant Colonel: Fascism and National Sentiment in Postwar Greece
Inā loaʻa kahi kahua noiʻi e pono ai ke aʻo ʻana ma ka wehewehe ʻana i nā manaʻo, ʻo ka fascism kēia - kahi ʻano kālai'āina hou e hōʻike maopopo ana i ka pili o nā manaʻo no ka mōʻaukala. ʻO Antonio Gramsci, kekahi o ka mea mua i aʻo i ka fascism, i kona hānau ʻana ua hoʻohewa ʻo ia ʻo "he unchaining of elemental forces ʻaʻole hiki ke kāohi ʻia ma lalo o ka bourgeois system of economic and political government. ʻO ka Fascism [...] me kāna ʻōlelo hoʻohiki no ka hoʻopaʻi ʻole i hiki ai i kahi lehulehu ke uhi ʻia ma luna o ka hoʻoheheʻe ʻia ʻana o nā kuko, inaina a me nā makemake me kahi varnish o nā manaʻo politika paʻakikī. ʻOiaʻiʻo, ua kāhea mua ka moʻolelo moʻolelo no ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā manaʻo me ka noi kaulana a Lucien Febvre, i ka makahiki 1941, ma lalo o ka hoʻoweliweli pololei o ka fascism. Ke hoʻomau nei ma ke ʻano like, ʻike kekahi ʻāpana koʻikoʻi o ka ʻimi noiʻi hou i ka fascism ʻaʻole he manaʻo manaʻo (ʻo ia ke ʻano maʻamau i ka anglophone 'Fascist Studies'), akā ma ke ʻano he ʻano kālaiʻāina nona nā manaʻo alakaʻi ʻaʻole i hōʻike maopopo ʻia. , a i ʻole maopopo i ka poʻe keaka iā lākou iho: "hoʻoikaika lākou i nā makemake", nā manaʻo visceral ma mua o nā manaʻo noʻonoʻo. Hāʻawi kahi hana hou iā mākou i kahi papa inoa nui o kēia mau makemake hoʻoikaika o ka fascism:
ka manaʻo o ka pilikia nui ma mua o ka hiki ʻana o nā hoʻonā kuʻuna; ʻO ke kūlana kiʻekiʻe o ka hui, kahi i ʻoi aku ai nā kuleana o kekahi ma mua o kēlā me kēia kuleana, inā ʻo ke kanaka a i ʻole ke ao holoʻokoʻa, a me ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa ʻana o ke kanaka iā ia; ʻO ka manaʻoʻiʻo he mea pōʻino ka hui, he manaʻo e hōʻoiaʻiʻo i kekahi hana, me ka ʻole o ke kānāwai a i ʻole ka pono kūpono, e kūʻē i kona mau ʻenemi, ma loko a ma waho; ka makaʻu i ka emi ʻana o ka pūʻulu ma lalo o nā hopena ʻino o ka liberalism individualistic, hakakā papa, a me nā mana malihini; ka pono no ka hoʻohui ʻana o kahi kaiāulu maʻemaʻe, ma ka ʻae ʻana inā hiki, a i ʻole ma ka hana ʻino ʻole inā pono; ka pono o ka mana e nā aliʻi maoli (kāne mau), e hoʻopau ana i kahi aliʻi aupuni nona wale nō ka mea hiki ke hoʻokomo i ka hopena mōʻaukala o ka hui; ke kūlana kiʻekiʻe o ka manaʻo o ke alakaʻi ma mua o ke kumu kumu a me nā kumu āpau; ka nani o ka hana ʻino a me ka maikaʻi o ka makemake, ke hoʻolaʻa lākou i ka holomua o ka hui; ʻO ke kuleana o ka poʻe i koho ʻia e hoʻomalu i nā poʻe ʻē aʻe me ka ʻole o ke kaohi ʻana i ke ʻano o ke kānāwai kanaka a i ʻole ke kānāwai akua, e hoʻoholo ʻia e ke kumu hoʻokahi o ka ikaika o ka hui i loko o kahi hakakā Darwinian.
Ma kēia ala, ʻaʻole ʻike wale ʻia ka fascism me kāna ʻano radicalized - a hoʻomanaʻo nui ʻia i kēia lā - ʻo ia hoʻi, ʻo Hitler, ka mea i hoʻokomo iā ʻEulopa i ke Kaua Honua ʻElua a hana i ka Holocaust. Hoʻomaopopo ʻia ʻo ia he mea ākea,
He ʻano hana kālaiʻāina i hōʻailona ʻia e ka manaʻo nui i ka emi ʻana o ke kaiāulu, ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa, a i ʻole ka hoʻomāinoino ʻia a me nā hoʻomana hoʻopaʻi ʻana o ka lokahi, ka ikaika, a me ka maʻemaʻe, kahi i hui pū ʻia e nā pūʻali koa nationalist, e hana pū ana me ka hui pū ʻana me nā elite kuʻuna. , haʻalele i ke kūʻokoʻa democratic a hahai me ka hoʻōla hoʻōla ʻana a me ka ʻole o ke kānāwai a i ʻole ke kaohi ʻana i nā pahuhopu o ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe kūloko a me ka hoʻonui ʻana i waho.
Ma waena o Helene, ua hoʻoikaika ʻia, mai luna a mai lalo, e kūkulu i nā ʻaoʻao fascist, akā ua lanakila lākou i ke kākoʻo liʻiliʻi. Eia naʻe, i ka wā o ka noho ʻana, ua ulu aʻe nā pūʻulu fascist, a ma hope o ka Liberation fascism, ma ke ʻano i hōʻike ʻia ma luna, ua hōʻike ʻia he koho hoihoi no nā mea he nui. ʻO ka mea mua, no nā ʻāpana o nā elite kuʻuna i hoʻomau i ka noho aliʻi ʻana, e like me ka mea i hōʻike ʻia e kahi mea kākau moʻolelo conservative, "me ke kākoʻo ʻole ʻia, a me ka ʻole o ka hiki a i ʻole ka manaʻo e hiki ai iā lākou ke alo i ka pilikia o ka ʻāina". Eia kekahi, no ka bourgeoisie i hoʻopili ʻia e kona hui pū ʻana me ke Axis a no nā ʻāpana o ka waena a me ka papa haʻahaʻa i loaʻa i ka pōmaikaʻi mai nā haunaele o ka Noho. ʻO kēia poʻe a pau, i makaʻu ʻia e ka radicalism politika i hoʻokuʻu ʻia e ka polarization pilikanaka pōʻino o nā makahiki o ka ʻOccupation, ua minamina lākou i ka holomua o ke aupuni democracy e hoʻoweliweli ana i ko lākou kūlana. ʻO kahi ʻāpana i makemake i ka koho conservative: demobilization o ka heluna kanaka, e pili ana i kahi mōʻī ikaika, kaohi ʻana i ka parliamentarism, inā paha, a me ka lanakila ʻana o ka resurgent i waiho ʻia ma o kahi pūʻali koa i hoʻomaʻamaʻa ʻia a hoʻolako ʻia e ka poʻe Pelekania. Ua koho ʻia kekahi ʻāpana no ka hoʻouluulu lehulehu ʻana i nā pūʻulu hoʻouka kaua ʻole, e like me ka Italia fasci di combattimento, nā pūʻali koa i hoʻolālā ʻia ma ka ʻāina a hoʻonohonoho ʻia ma o nā pāʻina a me nā ʻano hana parastatal. ʻO kā lākou papahana kālai'āina i komo i ka hoʻoweliweli a i ʻole ka luku ʻana i ka hema, a me kahi aupuni antidemokratik ākea. ʻO ke kolonela a mākou e nānā nei ma aneʻi, ʻo Georgios Grivas, ke alakaʻi o ka ʻaoʻao fascist "X" - ʻo ia kona inoa - a he inoa ʻohana ma Helene mai ia manawa, he mea hoʻolaha i kēia kulekele ʻelua.
ʻO kaʻoiaʻiʻo, ua huki nā conservatives a me nā fascists i kahi hui nui o nā hōʻailona hōʻailona maʻamau, i hoʻokomo pū ʻia me nā manaʻo politika ikaika, i hoʻohālikelike ʻia i ka manawa like i ka mea i kapa ʻia ʻo "ethnicophrosyne" a i ʻole "naʻau aupuni". Ethnicophrosyne maopopo ka haalele ana i ka hema, a hiki i ka pono o ka poe kuokoa i kanalua mau loa ia, me ka lakou mau kue ana. Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, ua hoʻokomo pū ʻia me ka Fascist Right. ʻO ka pololei, ua ʻoluʻolu ia i ka ʻĀkau fascist, no ka mea, ua hopohopo nui ʻia me ka emi ʻana o ke kaiāulu, ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa, a me ka hoʻomāinoino ʻana a hānai ʻia nā hoʻomana compensatory o ka lokahi, ka ikaika, a me ka maʻemaʻe. ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo, ua hana ʻo ethnicophrosyne iā ia iho i nā makemake a pau o ka fascism i ʻōlelo ʻia ma luna. Ua hōʻike kēia mau manaʻo i nā ʻōlelo hoʻolaha ākea a nā mea haʻiʻōlelo a pau o ka Pono, mai ka poʻe naʻauao lehulehu a hiki i nā hacks venial a me nā poʻe kālai'āina ʻike ʻole, e like me ka ʻike ʻana i nā nūpepa a i ʻole ka puke pai o ia manawa. Ua hoʻokumu kēia mau kuko i kona ʻano paʻakikī, a ua hoʻomohala hou ʻia i loko o nā hui like ʻole o ka authoritarianism, racism a me nationalism, i hui pū ʻia me nā kumu ikaika o ka conservatism moʻomeheu masculinist a me ka hoʻomana hoʻomana. Ma kēia ʻano, ua noi ʻia nā mea i kapa ʻia ʻo "nā kuleana aupuni" e hoʻokō i nā kuleana democratic, a ua ʻimi ʻia ka legitimation politika i nā manaʻo nui no ka hoʻonui ʻana o ka mokuʻāina Helene a me ka loaʻa ʻana o nā kolone inā ʻaʻole ma Asia, a laila ma ka ʻākau o ʻApelika.
Ua ʻike ʻia ʻo Ethnicophrosyne ʻaʻole he kūlana politika wale nō akā he "phronema", he nationalism militant puʻuwai a ikaika, e hoʻokumu ʻia ana mai kahi pilina pohihihi me ka waiwai aupuni o ka Hellenism, kahi manaʻo ikaika loa. Mahalo i ka ethnikophrosyne ka Helene Akau crystallized i loko o ka manaʻo kaiāulu i hoomaka e hemo wale ma hope o kona Cyprus lapuwale o 1974. Ua pani i ka leftists, e like me kaʻu i olelo aku ai, aka, ua ae aku i fascists e like me bona fide constituent wahi o ka lahui hoomoana, e like me ka Grivas. hōʻike maopopo ʻia ka hihia. Inā hoʻohaumia ka poʻe conservatives i kā lākou hana kālai'āina i mea e hoʻopaʻa ai i ke kōkua haole, akā naʻe, ʻo ka hoʻoulu ʻana i nā makemake o ka ethnikophrosyne i alakaʻi ai i ka fascism, a hāʻawi maoli i nā wahi hui ikaika i nā fascists Helene. ʻO Grivas, ʻo ia hoʻi, ua hana maikaʻi iā lākou ma ka ʻōlelo o ka insticts, e hoʻohana ana i nā ʻōlelo hoʻohālike i unuhi ʻia mai ke ola o kēlā me kēia lā o nā mahiʻai a me nā luina, a me nā kumuwaiwai palapala "ʻāina" i loaʻa i nā haumāna puka o nā kula kiʻekiʻe. ʻAʻole hiki iā mākou ke nānā i kēia mau kiʻi paʻa i kēia manawa, e kuhikuhi wale mākou i hoʻokahi a ʻelua paha o lākou i kekahi manawa. Mahalo iā lākou, a me nā hana e like me lākou, ua hoʻokomo ʻia ʻo Grivas i ka pantheon aupuni ma hope o nā makahiki 1950 a noho aliʻi ʻia i loko o ia mea a hiki i ko mākou mau lā.
ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo, ʻo Grivas, alakaʻi akamai i nā ʻōlelo aʻoaʻo o ka ethnicophrosyne i kā lākou mau manaʻo kūpono, e hana ma hope i nā pilikia i manaʻo ʻole ʻia no ka poʻe conservatives nui, ka poʻe i hoʻāʻo e hoʻohana i ka poʻe fascists no ka hana haumia o ka haki ʻana i ka hema ma 1945-1946 a laila hoʻolei iā lākou. Ma muli o kona lilo ʻana i mau mea hoʻoilina o ka ethnikophrosyne, me ka noʻonoʻo ʻana iā lākou iho he mau kahu maoli, a ʻike ʻia e nā mea he nui, ʻaʻole hiki ke hele maʻalahi ka mea hope. Ma hope o ka makahiki 1947, i ka wā i hiki ai ke waiho ʻia nā pūʻali hoʻouka kaua fascist no ka pūʻali koa hou i hoʻonohonoho ʻia, ua mālama ʻia lākou ma ke ʻano he mau hoa liʻiliʻi o ke aupuni, ʻaʻole wale kēia no ka mea ua hana lākou i kahi koho hāʻule hope, inā lilo ke kōkua haole. ʻAʻole hiki ke loaʻa i kekahi manawa, akā no ka mea hiki iā lākou ke hoʻohālikelike ʻia ma ke ʻano he poʻokela ʻoiaʻiʻo o ka ethnikophrosyne, e like me ka poʻe e kamaʻilio wale i kāna kamaʻilio akā hele pū kekahi i kāna hele. No kēia kumu nui ka makemake ʻole i kēia lā, i nā pōʻai aupuni a i waena o nā mea kākau moʻolelo aupuni, e ʻike iā lākou he fascist.
ʻO nā manaʻo ʻelua, nā conservatives a me nā fascists, pono kekahi i kekahi e hoʻihoʻi i ka EAM, ka Left-dominated National Liberation Front, akā ua māhele ʻia lākou pehea e hana pono ai. ʻO nā makahiki ma hope o ka Liberation, mai 1944 a i 1947, hiki ke ʻike ʻia e like me ka mea i kapa ʻia e Robert Paxton ʻo ka "ʻekolu pae" i ka hoʻomohala ʻana o ka fascism: hiki ʻole i nā ʻaoʻao kuʻuna ke hoʻokele i kahi pilikia koʻikoʻi o ka ʻōnaehana. wahi i ka fascism, a me ka hui pū ʻana o nā elite i hoʻokumu ʻia me ka papahana fascist. ʻO nā mea i hoʻohaʻahaʻa i ka manaʻo o ka poʻe fascist no ka mana, ʻo ia ka mea mua, ʻo ka mākau politika palena o ko lākou mau alakaʻi, ka mea i hōʻike ʻia ʻaʻole hiki ke hoʻohui a hoʻopaʻa i nā kuʻikahi pono, a ʻo ka lua, ʻo ka British deus ex machina, nāna i hoʻohiki i nā ʻano kōkua āpau no ka ka hoʻihoʻi ʻana i ke aupuni mōʻī a me ke kūlana nohona. ʻO ka hilinaʻi ʻana i ka poʻe Pelekania, ua loaʻa i kona mau hemahema: ka huhū o nā koi irredentist ma Kupero, ʻo ia hoʻi he panalāʻau Pelekania ia manawa, nā kapu i ke ʻano o ke kaua kūʻē i ka hema e hōʻike ana i nā pono kulekele honua o Lākana, a, ma ka hopena, nā ʻano like ʻole. ʻano palekana ʻole e pili ana i ka hilinaʻi. ʻO kēia mau pilikia i hoʻoikaika i ka piʻi ʻana o nā manaʻo politika ikaika, e hōʻaiʻē i kahi hoʻohālike mai ka mea i kapa ʻia ʻo hydraulic model of emotions: ka huhū i hānau ʻia mai loko mai o nā traumas e hōʻeha nei i ka haʻaheo o ka lāhui a me ka ʻike ʻana ʻaʻole hiki ke noʻonoʻo hou ʻia ʻo Helene ma ke ʻano he hub o kahi aupuni. akā, ua lilo i mea hiki ʻole, ma ke ʻano o ke kaua ma hope o ke kaua, he mana kolu; ka huhū i ka palena manawaleʻa, e nā poʻe haole, i nā mea kū'ē i ka lehulehu; ʻO ka noʻonoʻo makaʻu i nā palena o ka lokomaikaʻi anglosaxon a me nā hoʻolālā hou o ka Albion hoʻopunipuni. ʻO Grivas a me nā mea fascist ʻē aʻe i kanu pono i kēia mau manaʻo, akā ʻike mākou iā lākou i loko o nā mea he nui loa, inā ʻaʻole ʻo nā mea āpau, o ka poʻe kālai'āina a me nā mea kākau o kēlā manawa.
ʻO ka mana o Grivas o ethnicophrosyne i alakaʻi i nā hopena politika waiwai. ʻO Komma ton Chiton, a i ʻole "Party X", i hana ʻia e ia i ka wā o ka ʻoihana a me ka hana ma ka waena a me ka hopena o nā makahiki 1940, ua uhi maopopo ʻia e ka wehewehe ʻana o ka fascism i ʻōlelo ʻia ma luna, ʻaʻole wale no ka hoʻoulu ʻana i nā kuko akā no ka nānā ʻana i kāna. hui a me ka hana. ʻO ka inoa "X" i hōʻike i ka aporias ideological o ka mea nāna i hoʻokumu a hoʻāʻo e hoʻopukapuka me kahi ea o ka pohihihi i kona wahi politika, akā ʻo kāna hōʻailona, ʻo ia hoʻi ka leka i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e ka lei aliʻi, ua hōʻike i kāna mau hilinaʻi mōʻī. ʻO ka pilikia, ʻo ke aliʻi kaulana ʻole ʻo George i hui pū me Lākana i ke kaua, ʻoiai ʻo Grivas, he mea hoʻomaloka Cypriot e minamina ana i ka noho aupuni ʻana o Pelekane ma kona mokupuni, ua noho ʻo ia ma Helene a hāʻawi i kāna mau lawelawe i nā limahana Kelemania. I ka manawa, ua lanakila kāna anticommunism a me ka conservatism i kona inaina iā Albion. I ka hopena o ka makahiki 1943, i ka wā i ʻike ʻia ai ʻaʻole hiki i ka Axis ke mālama iā Helene, ua hoʻohana ʻo ia i ke kōkua Pelekane e hoʻohui i nā pūʻulu ʻaoʻao ʻākau e kūʻē i ka National Liberation Front (EAM) hema, i manaʻo ʻia e hoʻokau i kahi aupuni repubalika. ʻAʻole i liʻuliʻu ua hoʻokomo ʻo "X" i nā lālā ex-Security Battallion a me nā hoa hana ʻē aʻe o ka Nazis, a alakaʻi i ka hakakā me EAM. I ka hoʻomaka ʻana o 1945, ua lilo ia i hui umbrella o ka ʻaoʻao ʻākau loa. Ma Malaki 1946 ua helu ʻia ma kahi o 50.000 mau lālā, ʻo ka hapalua o lākou i hoʻopaʻa ʻia: ʻumikumamākolu tausani ma Peloponnese, 20.000 ma waena o Helene, 10.000 ma Makedonia a me Thrace, a me ke koena ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe. ʻOiai ua hoʻokomo lākou i nā mea ʻokoʻa he nui a me nā poʻe pōā, ʻo kahi hapa nui o lākou no ka pūʻali koa aupuni, ka pūʻali koa, ka gendarmerie a me nā mākaʻi, ka poʻe i hoʻonohonoho hou i kēlā manawa ma lalo o ka hoʻokele Pelekane.
Inā mākou e noʻonoʻo i kā lākou ʻano kālai'āina a me ka hoʻoulu ʻana i nā makemake ma mua o kā lākou mau palapala moʻokalaleo opaque, akaka ka ʻike fascist o nā Chites. No ke ʻano o ka lanakila ʻana i ka hema, ua maʻalahi kā lākou ʻai, a ua hōʻike pōkole ʻia e Grivas: "ʻAʻole paʻakikī nā mea, maʻalahi. ʻO ka nui o kou noʻonoʻo ʻana iā lākou, ʻoi aku ka nui o kou nalowale ʻana i ke kai […] Mai lawe i nā hana no ka manawa lōʻihi. Loaʻa ka ʻike, a paʻi ikaika. I ʻole lākou e ala hou i ko lākou poʻo, ʻaʻole wale i ka lā ʻapōpō a i ʻole ma hope o hoʻokahi, ʻelima, ʻumi makahiki, akā ʻaʻole loa i kā mākou hanauna a i ka hanauna o nā keiki a kā mākou mau keiki. ʻAʻole kēia mau ʻōlelo hoʻoweliweli, akā ua hoʻokō ʻia me ka makemake. ʻO ka mea maʻamau, ua hoʻopiʻi ʻia ʻo "X" e ka Left a me ka poʻe liberal ma ke ʻano he fascist, a he mea nānā Pelekane ʻike - he conservative, ʻo Chris Woodhouse- i ʻike ʻia i ka manawa i hoʻokomo hou ʻia i kāna ʻano hana ʻo Ku Klux Klan, ʻo ia ka hui fascist mua ma ka honua. E like me nā mea fascist ʻē aʻe, no nā kumu pili i ka lehulehu i wehewehe ʻole ai ka poʻe Chites iā lākou iho i ka lehulehu e like me ia - he mea ʻino loa kēia i ka makahiki 1946- akā ʻo Grivas' fuhrer like poses, me Hitler mustache a me nā mea āpau, ʻo ia paha ka mea maikaʻi loa.
I ka hopena, ua lilo ʻo "X" i mea hana i ka White Terror kahi i hoʻopau ai ka mokuʻāina a me kahi hui o nā pūʻulu fascist i ka hema. Ua kūkulu ʻo ia i nā loulou paʻa i nā conservatives a ʻoi aku hoʻi i ka Popular Party, kahi i loaʻa kālā ai. Akā naʻe, ua hōʻole ʻo Grivas, ma kekahi o kāna mau helu kuhi hewa ʻana, ua hōʻole ka poʻe Popular i nā noho pāremata he iwakālua ma ke koho balota ʻo Malaki 1946, a alakaʻi i ka National Party of the Chites i ka pōʻino koho. Me ka ʻole o nā kākoʻo kālaiʻāina a me nā mea hāʻawi kālā, ua lilo ka Chites i hoʻopili ʻole ʻia i loko o ka hui aupuni i ke kuleana o ke kūʻē kūʻē kūʻē i nā aupuni conservative nui i alakaʻi i ke Kaua Kivila e kūʻē i ka hema mai 1946 a 1949. Ua mālama ʻia ko lākou hui a hiki i ka ke koho balota e hiki mai ana o ka makahiki 1950, a ua hahau hou ia, a mahope iki iho, ua hoopauia. I ka hoʻomaka ʻana i kahi papahana hou, e hoʻouna koke ʻia kona alakaʻi e ka ʻoi loa o ka poʻe ʻĀkau, e like me ke ʻano o ka hoʻouna ʻana o Franco i ka poʻe fascist Spanish i ka Hikina Hikina i ka wā o ke Kaua Honua ʻElua, e kūʻē i ka noho aliʻi ʻana o Pelekane ma Cyprus. ʻAʻole hiki iā ia a me kāna mau mea kākoʻo ke noʻonoʻo i ka hopena o nā pōʻino, akā pono lākou. I ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i ke kākoʻo no kāna huakaʻi cypriot i hoʻohana ʻia ʻo Grivas
ʻO ka hopena o ke Kaua Kivila i hōʻailona i ka nui o nā conservatives ma luna o nā fascists ma Helene. Ua lilo ka poʻe fascist i kā lākou manaʻo no ka mana. I ka hopena o 1940s bourgeois Helene, me ka hoʻololi lima lima mai Beretania a me ʻAmelika, ua koho i ke kaua maʻamau a me ka conservative stabilization ma mua o ka hoʻoneʻe nui ʻana, ka politicide o ka hema a me ke aupuni fascist a Grivas i manaʻo ai. He koho maalea keia o ke ano, aole e komo i ka hoomaha me ka manao o ka ethnicophrosyne loa a i ole ka hoole maopopo ana i ka koho fascist. ʻOiai, ua kaua ʻia ke Kaua Kivila ma kahi ʻano i kaupalena ʻia, i ʻōlelo ʻia e ke Kaua Cold e pono e kaupalena i ke ʻano o ka hoʻolaha honua o ka hema. Ua hoʻowahāwahā ʻia kēia e ka poʻe fascist Helene, akā he nui nā conservatives, ma ke ʻano he ʻano hana ʻole o ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana iā ia iho a me ka hōʻike ʻana o ka lawelawe ʻana i ka 'haole'. ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo, ua ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka haʻi ʻana o Grivas ma mua o ka Conservative Right o kēlā manawa i kekahi mau manaʻo politika i lilo i kumu nui o ka haʻi ʻōlelo aupuni a hiki i ko mākou mau lā. E nānā wale mākou i kekahi o lākou, i ka manawa pōkole a mākou i haʻalele ai. ʻO ka mea mua, ʻoiai ua haʻaheo ka poʻe conservatives i kā lākou pili honua, ua hōʻike maikaʻi nā mea hoʻoponopono o Grivas' wiki Ephemeris ton Chiton i nā manaʻo o ka hoʻomāinoino ʻana a me ka pilikia kupaianaha i hoʻopuni ʻia ka ʻāina i ka wā a ma hope o ka noho ʻana. E like me kāna i ʻōlelo ai,
He ʻāina lanakila ʻo Helene i kēia lā, akā he hoʻopaʻa paʻa i ka poʻe lanakila. ʻO ka moku Helene liʻiliʻi, ma hope o ka hahai ʻana i ka poʻe lanakila ma nā kai kiʻekiʻe a pau i ka wā o ka ʻino o ke kaua hope loa, ʻimi nei i kahi puʻuhonua. ʻAʻole naʻe e ʻae ka poʻe lanakila i kēia, a me ka hoʻohiki ʻana i ka trident o Poseidon, hana lākou i nā ʻino hou i kēlā me kēia manawa e hoʻāʻo ai ko mākou waʻa e ʻimi i kahi kukū, a laila hoʻolei hou nā nalu huhū iā mākou i ke kai ākea. Makehewa ko makou kapena i kahea aku ai ia lakou: 'Aia au i ka pilikia! He aha kaʻu i hana hewa ai iā ʻoe? ʻAʻole anei i hakakā koʻu moku ma kou ʻaoʻao, ʻaʻole anei i kū i nā pōʻino a pau me kou mau moku?’ ʻAʻohe pepeiao o ka poʻe lanakila no kēlā mau kūʻē. A pane ka leo leo Slavic: 'E hāʻawi mai iā mākou i kou moku, a i ʻole mākou e hoʻopaʻa i lalo o ke kai'. A ʻo ka lekiō Anglosaxons mai kahi mamao aku: 'ʻAʻole hiki iā mākou ke kōkua iā ʻoe. E koa! Mai hoʻonāukiuki iā lākou, malia paha e lanakila mākou'.
Ma keia hihio, ua hoohalikeia na kaiaulu lahui lahui me na moku, liilii a nui, ikaika a nawaliwali paha, i alakaiia e na kapena powa, maka'u a i hoehaia, aka, he mau kaawale ko lakou. ʻO ke kāpena o ka moku Helene –i.e. Ke ho'āʻo nei ʻo King George- e hoʻopakele iā ia mai ka poʻe hoʻomāʻewaʻewa a me ka ʻaihue nui, nā "Slavs" a me nā "Anglosaxons". Ke ʻimi nei kēia mau mea ʻelua i nā hoʻolālā hoʻomalu honua a lākou i hoʻokamani i ka poʻe fascist. ʻO ka pane Helene kūpono iā lākou he mana neptunian o Gotterdamerung. "E hoʻōho i kēia mau haole", kauoha ʻo Grivas i ke aupuni,
"Kūlia! Ua lawa!” E pane me ka wiwo ʻole i ka hahau ʻana o kā lākou trident! E hoʻopaʻa kākou iā kākou iho i ka hoʻokele a hoʻāʻo, me ka wiwo ʻole i ka ʻino, e alakaʻi i ko kākou moku i kahi palekana. Akā, inā ʻaʻole hiki iā ʻoe ke hana i kēia, a laila, mai hāʻawi i ko mākou moku i ko lākou lima ʻē a ʻaʻole hoʻi e pohō me ka nani ʻole. E wehe i ka puka wai a hoʻokomo i ke kai, a no laila, ma lalo o ke kani ʻana o kā mākou Himeni Lahui, e hoʻokele hanohano i ka moku i lalo. […] E ala i ka lāhui, e hoʻolilo iā ia i pūʻali kaua, a e kāhea aku i nā haole: "E waiho wale iā mākou, no ka mea, ua hoʻoholo mākou e make pū me ʻoe!"
ʻO nā manaʻo politika i hōʻike ʻia ma ʻaneʻi e pili ana i kekahi mau ʻōlelo kumu a me nā kiʻi - nā alakaʻi, nā lāhui, nā waʻa, nā hakakā me nā mana kūlohelohe - e loaʻa ana nā consonances ʻokoʻa loa mai ka ʻaoʻao hema o ka noʻonoʻo noʻonoʻo, i wehewehe nui ʻia e nā huaʻōlelo o ka papa a pili pū hoʻi i ka demokala. , internationalism a me nā pono wahine. Ua hoʻohana ʻo Grivas i nā ʻōlelo hoʻohālikelike he nui ma ke ʻano like, e hoʻāʻo ana e hōʻike i ka hoʻomāinoino ʻana i ka ʻāina makua: “Ua loaʻa mua ʻo Helene i kahi kuni [ΟλοκαÏτωμα] no ke kumu Allied; inā makemake nā Mana Nui e mōhai aku i kona ola ma luna o ke kuahu o ke kanaka a nalo loa ia mai ka palapala ʻāina o ʻEulopa, a laila e lohe lākou i ke kolu o ka 'OCHI!' Ua lawa!". Ua hoʻopiʻi ʻia ke aupuni ma ke ʻano he nui ʻole o ka "virile, ʻano Helene i kā mākou mau hoaaloha".
E hoʻopau wale kākou me ka manaʻo o ka noho kaʻawale ʻana o Grivas i ka hopena o nā makahiki 1940, ʻaʻole ia ma muli o ke kuko politika āna i haʻi mai ai ma o kāna mau kiʻi hoʻāla, a i kaʻana like ʻia e ka Pono, akā no nā koho politika kikoʻī i puka mai i kona makemake ʻole. hele mai e pili i ka pōʻaiapili honua hou o ke Kaua Kivila -i.e. ke Kaua anu- a me ka mana nui o Beritania. ʻO nā manaʻo kālai'āina āna i haʻi aku ai ua hoʻohana i ka makaʻu nui i nā holomua o ke aupuni democracy i manaʻo ʻia e kahi elite e ulu nei i ke aupuni authoritarian. Ua hoʻokumu ʻo Grivas i kāna hoʻopiʻi ma luna o ka nationalism koʻikoʻi i noho mau i ka manaʻo manaʻo o ka conservative Greece i loko o ka manawa, a ua manaʻo ʻia e hoʻopilikia ʻia e ka ʻaoʻao alakaʻi o ka Pono i kāna ʻimi ʻana i nā kākoʻo honua. ʻAʻole hiki iā ia ke hoʻokuʻikahi i ka mana pololei o ke aupuni Helene e ka poʻe Pelekania ma waena o 1944 a me 1947 me kāna mau ʻano volontaristic no ka hana hou ʻana o ka lāhui. Ua lilo kāna mau pūʻali hoʻouka kaua a me kāna papahana kālai'āina fascist i ka wā i hoʻonohonoho pono ai ka poʻe conservatives, me ke kākoʻo Pelekane a me ʻAmelika ma hope mai, e hoʻonohonoho pono i ke kaua kūʻē i ka hema. Ua hoʻohana ʻia nā manaʻo hoʻouluulu āna i ʻōlelo nui ai e kūkulu i nā pūʻali koa ʻole o Chites akā he pūʻali koa maʻamau i hoʻohui koke ʻia i loko o NATO a lilo i mea hoʻohālike o ke aupuni anticommunist a hiki i 1974. Pono mākou e hoʻomaopopo a hiki i ko mākou mau lā. ʻaʻole i hoʻonāwaliwali ʻia a hōʻole ʻole ʻia, a inā ua emi lākou, hoʻi lākou i ka mua.
ʻO Antonio Gramsci, "Elemental Forces", Ordine Nuovo, 26 ʻApelila 1921, i paʻi hou ʻia ma Quintin Hoare (ed.), Nā koho mai nā puke paʻahao o Antonio Gramsci, unuhi ʻia e Quintin Hoare, Lawrence a me Wishart, London 1978, p. , loaʻa pū ma http://www.marxists.org/archive/gramsci/1921/04/elemental_forces.htm
Cf. Barbara H. Rosenwein, "Ke hopohopo nei i nā manaʻo ma ka mōʻaukala", The American Historical Review 107.3. ʻOiaʻiʻo, ua hāʻawi mua kekahi poʻe naʻauao o ka Left i ke koʻikoʻi o nā manaʻo i ka nānā ʻana i ka fascism: e ʻike iā Wilhelm Reich, The Mass Psychology of Fascism, Penguin, Harmondsworth 1975 [1933], a me Theodor Adorno, The Psychological Technique. o Martin Luther Thomas' Radio Addresses, Stanford University Press, Stanford 2000 [1943].
ʻO ke ʻano o kēia huaʻōlelo hakakā. No ka ʻike ʻana i nā kūkākūkā kūpono e ʻike i ka mokuna hoʻomaka iā Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies. He Introduction, Macmillan, Lādana 2 1998.
ʻO kahi ala e hele ai, ma waho aʻe o ka trivializing fascism, alakaʻi i kekahi mau pilikia. No laila, ʻo ka hoʻoikaika ʻana i ka maʻemaʻe ideological alakaʻi iā Roger Eatwell He ʻike nui o ka hoʻomohala ʻana i nā 'haʻawina fascist' ʻike ʻia ma R. J. B. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of Mussolini and Fascism, Arnold 1998.
ʻO Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth 2005, p. 219-220.
ʻO Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth 2005, p. 218.
Ma kēia manawa e ʻike iā ΣπÏρος ΜαρκÎτος, ΠÏŽς φίλησα τον Μουσσολίνι. Τα πρÏŽτα βήματα του ελληνικοÏ φασισμοÏ, ΒιβλιÏŒραμα, Αθήνα 2006.
Γιάννης Ο. Ιατρίδης, «Εισαγωγή» στο Γιάννης Ο. Ιατρίδης (επιμ.), Η Ελλάδα στη δεκαετία 1940-1950. Ένα Îθνος σε κρίση, μετάφραση Μαργαρίτα Δρίτσα – Αμαλία Λοκδουλεδια ιο, Αθήνα 1984, σ. 15.
ʻO kēia haʻi ʻana o nā manaʻo e pili ana i nā insticts ka mea maʻamau i nā koa ʻEulopa WWI, ʻoiai ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā huaʻōlelo i hōʻaiʻē ʻia mai ka psychoanalysis ua lilo i mea maʻamau i ka WWII. Cf. ʻO Joanna Bourke, "Ka makaʻu a me ka hopohopo: Ke kākau ʻana e pili ana i ka manaʻo i loko o ka mōʻaukala o kēia wā", History Workshop Journal 55 (2003), σ. 121.
He mau pule wale nō i hala aku nei ua kipa aku ka ʻAkipihopa o Athens i kona lua kupapaʻu, ma Kupero, e waiho i kahi lei. ʻO ka hoʻokomo ʻana o nā fascists i ka pantheon aupuni ʻaʻole pono mākou e kāhāhā. ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo, ʻo nā moʻolelo koʻikoʻi o ka mōʻaukala Helene e hōʻole i ka ʻike fascist o kēlā poʻe, a me ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa ʻana i ka hopena o nā neʻe fascist homegrown, ʻoiaʻiʻo, hoʻohana i nā huaʻōlelo a hoʻohana i nā manaʻo politika o ka nationalism nui. ʻO ka mōʻaukala aupuni koʻikoʻi e hoʻokūpaʻa i ka mea i kapa ʻia ʻo "kūʻē i ka maikaʻi o ka Helene" a me nā airbrushes ʻoiaʻiʻo e hōʻino i kēia ʻike. ʻO ka mea nui, ʻike ʻia nā hakakā irredentist ma ke ʻano he "ʻāina" a no laila ua ʻike ʻia ʻo ia me ka ʻole o ka ʻike pilikanaka: ʻike ʻia kā lākou hoʻohewa ʻana ma mua o ka politika kūpono. E nānā, no ka laʻana, ΚολιÏŒπουλος – ΒερÎμης, · Ιστορία του ελληνικοÏ Îθνους, τ. *, Εκδοτική ΑθηνÏŽν, Αθήνα *· See also ΔÎσποινα Παπαδημητρίου, ΑπÏŒλονννα ÏŒνων στο Îθνος των εθνικοφρÏŒνων. Η συντηρητική σκÎψη στην Ελλάδα 1922-1967, Σαββάλας, Αθήνα ʻike pū ʻia ma waho aʻe o Helene ma 2006. οινα Παπαδημητρίου, “Το ακροδεξιÏŒ κίνημα στην Ελλάδα, 1936-1949 – ΚαταβολÎς, συνÎχειες και ασυνÎχειες", ma Χάγκεν Φλάισερ (επιμΎρ (επιμ.), επιμΕ. ΑπÏŒ τη Δικτατορία στον ΕμφÏλιο. ΤομÎς και συνÎχειες, ΚαστανιÏŽτης, Αθήνα 36, p. 49-2003. E ʻike paha kekahi ma ʻaneʻi ʻo ka ʻāpana analytical kumu o ka hoʻokokoke ʻana o kēia mea kākau, ʻo ia hoʻi ka "populism aupuni", kahi huaʻōlelo ascriptive akā ʻaʻole wehewehe ponoʻī, ʻaʻole i helu i ka ʻike a me nā reverberations o ka fascism, a no ka ʻimi pū ʻana i kēia. i kēia manawa ma kona ʻano mōʻaukala.
ʻO Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth 2005, p. 75.
E nana e.g. Περικλής Ιακ. ΑργυρÏŒπουλος, Αι αξιÏŽσεις της Ελλάδος. Εσωτερικαί και εξωτερικαί κατευθÏνσεις, Ιωάννης ΣιδÎρνναώ, 1945® XNUMX.
Ua hōʻole lākou, me ka hoʻoikaika ʻana ʻaʻole pono lākou i ka hui pū ʻana o kahi pōā, ʻo ia hoʻi, he mea ʻole loa - he manaʻo i loli ʻole i loko o ka ʻOihana. E ʻike iā Hagen Fleischer, “EπαφÎς μεταξÏ των γερμανικÏŽν αρχÏŽν κατοχής και των ενυτρα Žσεων της ελληνικής αντίστασης. ΕλιγμÏŒς ή συνεργασία;", ma Τζων Ιατρίδης (επιμ.), Η Ελλάδα Τζων Ιατρίδης (επιμ.), Η Ελλάδα στΎ 1940δα στΎ 1950 Ένα Îθνος σε κρίση, Αθήνα 1984, p. 92.
I ka makahiki 1944, ma hope o ka Liberation, ua hoʻopakele ʻia ke ola o Grivas e nā pūʻali koa Pelekania i ke kaua ʻo Athens, akā ʻaʻole naʻe kēia i hoʻohaumia i kona manaʻo iā lākou (e nānā i ka Μακάριος ΔρουσιÏŽτης, ΕΟΚΑ. άχυ, ΑθÎ ®να 1998, s. 30-31). Ua kākoʻo pū ʻia ʻo ia e lākou ma nā ʻano ʻē aʻe he nui. He ʻumi makahiki ma hope mai, ʻike lākou i ka hoʻihoʻi ʻana.
E like me ka helu ʻana o ka British Military Secret Service M13: e ʻike iā Μακάριος ΔρουσιÏŽτης, ΕΟΚΑ. Η σκοτεινή ÏŒψη, Στάχυ, Αθήνα 1998, σ. 34.
Γ. Γρίβας, «Το αμείλικτον κατηγορÏŽ», Εφημερίς των ΧιτÏŽν, pukana o ʻAukake 25th, i ka lā 1947 o ʻAukake, . Γρίβας, Πολιτικαί προβλÎψεις, op.cit., p. 83. He kumuhana mau keia o kana mau olelo paipai.
Αe like me Chris M. Woodhouse, Apple of Discord, Lādana 1948, p. 31.
Wahi a ka ʻikepili EAM, i ka makahiki ma waena o ka Varkiza Agreement o 1945 a me nā koho balota 1946 ka White Terror i uku i ka hema 1.289 make, 6.681 i ʻeha, 667 i luku ʻia nā keʻena o ka EAM a me 18.767 mau hana o ke ahi a me ka luku ʻana i ka waiwai. Hōʻike ka ʻikepili aupuni i ʻoi aku ma mua o 80.000 mau 'communists' i kū i nā ʻaha hoʻokolokolo koa i ka manawa like. E nana David H. Close (ed.), Ο ΕλληνικÏŒς ΕμφÏλιος ΠÏŒλεμος, 1943-1950, Φιλί®στωρÁ, p1996, Α208θ 222-1946. ʻAʻohe mea kānalua e hōʻike ana kēia mau ʻikepili i kahi hapa wale nō o ka hoʻolaha White Terror; ʻike, no ka laʻana, nā manaʻo o ka ʻepekema politika conservative ʻo George Mavrogordatos ma Γ.Θ. Μαυρογορδάτος, “Οι εκλογÎς και το δημοψήφισμα του 1940 ”, ma Τζων Ιατρίδης (επιμ.), Η Ελλάδα στη δεκαετία 1950-1984. Ένα Îθνος σε κρίση, Αθήνα 331, p. XNUMX.
Θανάσης Δ. Σφήκας, Οι άγγλοι Εργατικοί και ο ΕμφÏλιος ΠÏŒλεμος στην, Ε¬δλ θήνα 1997, p. 90. E nana hoi ia David H. Close, "The Changing Structure of the Right", ma John O. Iatrides, Linda Wrigley, Helene ma ke alanui. ʻO ke Kaua Kivila a me kāna Hoʻoilina, The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park 1995, p. 122-156.
Ua loaʻa iā "X" he 0,08% o ke koho balota, ʻoiai ʻo ka poloka o ka ʻAkau i lawe i 55% (ka Left a me ka liberal Center i pale ʻia): Θανάσης Δ. Σφήκας, Οι άγγλοι Εργατικοί και ο ΕμφÏλιος ΠÏŒλεμος στην, Ε¬δλ θήνα 1997, p. 181.
ΓεÏŽργιος Γρίβας, «Scapa Flow», Εφημερίς των ΧιτÏŽν, pukana o Feberuari 3rd, 1947, i paʻi hou ʻia ma νοργÏ ρχηγÏŒς ΕθνικοÏ ΚÏŒμματος ΧιτÏŽν, Πολιτικαί προβλÎψεις, κνΏμτ ν, Αθήναι 1947, p. 99-100.
ΓεÏŽργιος Γρίβας, «Scapa Flow», Εφημερίς των ΧιτÏŽν, pukana o Feberuari 3rd, 1947, i paʻi hou ʻia ma νοργÏ ρχηγÏŒς ΕθνικοÏ ΚÏŒμματος ΧιτÏŽν, Πολιτικαί προβλÎψεις, κνΏμτ ν, Αθήναι 1947, p. 101.
Γ. Γρίβας, «Εν ÏŒσω είναι καιρÏŒς…», Εφημερίς των ΧιτÏŽν, pukana o Iune 3rd, Γ1946. Γρίβας, Πολιτικαί προβλÎψεις, op.cit., p. 9.
ΓεÏŽργιος Γρίβας, «ΚυβÎρνησις-Διμοιρία, Κράτος Δικαίου κλρνησις-Διμοιρία, Κράτος Δικαίου κλπνννωτπ.», ςμτπΎΎΎνειΎΎ ÏŽν, pukana o Feberuari 3rd, 1947, e like me ka paʻi hou ʻia ʻana ma ΓεÏŽργιος Γρίβας, ΑρχηγÏŒς ΕθνικοÏ ΚÏνουντικιά Î ¯ προβλÎψεις, ΕθνικÏŒν ΚÏŒμμα ΧιτÏŽν, Αθήναι 1947, p. 104.
Ma hope o ke kaua, ua pono ʻo Lādana iā Helene no nā kumu hoʻolālā - ka pale ʻana i kona aupuni kūhelu - aʻo nā elite kūloko e pono ai ke kākoʻo Pelekane i mea e mālama ai i ko lākou kūlana hanohano. Ma nā ʻōlelo a kahi mea kākau moʻolelo conservative, "ʻoi aku ka ikaika o ka hilinaʻi ʻana o Helene i kona mau hoa komohana Komohana, ʻo Beretania a laila ʻo ʻAmelika, ʻoi aku ka ikaika ma waena o 1936 a me 1949 ma mua o nā manawa ʻē aʻe o ke kenekulia iwakālua": Κωνσταντίνος ΣβολÏŒπου, ΚαθοριστικÎς παράμετροι στη διαμÏŒρφωση της ελληνικής εξωτερικικι®, 1936 1949-36 – ΓενικÎς διαπιστÏŽσεις και υποθÎσεις", ma Χάγκεν Φλάισεια (.λεερ (.λεεια) . ΑπÏŒ τη Δικτατορία στον ΕμφÏλιο. ΤομÎς και συνÎχειες, ΚαστανιÏŽτης, Αθήνα 49, p. 2003.
ʻO ka mea hoʻoponopono o kahi ʻēheu ʻākau 'koʻikoʻi' i kēlā me kēia lā i wehewehe i nā mea: "E hoʻokō pono iā ia iho! Kūʻokoʻa! He mau ʻōlelo pā hale kēia. ʻAʻohe nīnau no ke kūʻokoʻa. Hoʻokahi wale nō nīnau: ʻo wai ka Boss. Hoʻokahi a ʻelua paha kā mākou Luna: ʻo ʻAmelika a me ʻEnelani”: H Καθημερινή, φ. της 16ης Μαρτίου 1947. Hiki ke loaʻa ka nui o nā ʻōlelo like ma ka haʻi ʻōlelo lehulehu o ia manawa.
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